Electronic Circuits: Master Circuit Boards, Testing Techniques and Electricity Fundamentals
Electronic Circuits: The Definitive Guide to Circuit Boards, Testing Circuits and Electricity Principles
Have you ever wondered how your smartphone, laptop, TV or any other electronic device works? How do they process information, display images, play sounds or communicate with each other? The answer lies in electronic circuits.
Electronic Circuits: The Definitive Guide to Circuit Boards, Testing Circuits and Electricity Princi
Electronic circuits are the building blocks of modern technology. They are composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. They can perform various simple and complex operations, such as amplifying signals, computing data, storing information or converting energy.
In this article, you will learn everything you need to know about electronic circuits. You will discover the main types of electronic circuits and how they differ. You will understand the basic components of electronic circuits and what they do. You will learn how to make your own circuit boards and test them. You will also learn the fundamental principles of electricity that govern how circuits work.
By the end of this article, you will have a solid foundation of knowledge and skills that will enable you to create your own electronic projects or enhance your existing ones. Whether you are a beginner or an expert, this article will provide you with valuable insights and tips that will help you master electronic circuits.
Circuit Boards
One of the most common ways to create electronic circuits is by using circuit boards. A circuit board is a flat piece of material that has conductive traces printed or etched on it. These traces form the connections between the electronic components that are mounted on the board.
Circuit boards can be made of different materials, such as fiberglass, plastic or metal. They can also have different layers of traces, depending on the complexity of the circuit. The most common types of circuit boards are:
Single-sided: These have traces only on one side of the board. They are easy to make and cheap, but they have limited space and routing options.
Double-sided: These have traces on both sides of the board. They can accommodate more components and connections than single-sided boards, but they require vias (holes) to connect the traces on different sides.
Multilayer: These have traces on multiple layers of the board. They can handle very complex and dense circuits, but they are expensive and difficult to manufacture and debug.
To make a circuit board, you need to design the layout of the components and traces on a software tool, such as Eagle, KiCad or Fritzing. Then, you need to transfer the design to the board using one of the following methods:
Printed: This involves printing the design on a special paper or film and then transferring it to the board using heat or chemicals. This is a quick and cheap method, but it may not be very accurate or durable.
Etched: This involves coating the board with a layer of copper and then removing the unwanted parts using a chemical solution. This is a more precise and reliable method, but it requires special equipment and materials.
Milled: This involves using a CNC machine to cut out the traces from the board. This is a very accurate and clean method, but it requires a costly and sophisticated machine.
After transferring the design to the board, you need to solder the components to the traces using a soldering iron and solder. Soldering is a process of melting a metal alloy that joins two metal surfaces together. To solder a component, you need to heat up its leads (wires) and apply some solder to them. Then, you need to place the component on the board and press its leads against the traces. The solder will solidify and form a strong bond between the component and the board.
How to design, layout and solder a circuit board?
To design, layout and solder a circuit board, you need to follow these steps:
Choose your components: Based on your circuit requirements, select the appropriate components that you need. You can use online databases or catalogs to find the specifications and datasheets of different components.
Draw your schematic: Using a software tool or a paper and pencil, draw a schematic diagram of your circuit. A schematic is a symbolic representation of your circuit that shows how the components are connected together. It uses standard symbols for each component and labels for their values and names.
Design your layout: Using a software tool or a paper and pencil, design the layout of your circuit board. A layout is a physical representation of your circuit that shows where the components and traces are placed on the board. It uses realistic shapes and sizes for each component and trace. You need to consider factors such as space, routing, noise, interference, heat dissipation and aesthetics when designing your layout.
Transfer your design: Using one of the methods described above, transfer your layout design to your circuit board. Make sure that the traces are clear and complete, and that there are no shorts or breaks.
Solder your components: Using a soldering iron and solder, solder your components to your circuit board. Make sure that the solder joints are smooth and shiny, and that there are no cold or dry joints.
Test your circuit: Using a multimeter, an oscilloscope or other testing tools, test your circuit for functionality and performance. Check for any errors or faults in your circuit, such as incorrect voltages, currents, signals or behaviors. Fix any problems that you find by re-soldering or replacing components.
Testing Circuits
Testing circuits is an essential part of electronic engineering. It allows you to verify that your circuits work as intended, and to identify and correct any errors or defects that may occur. Testing circuits also helps you to optimize your circuits for better efficiency, reliability and quality.
To test circuits, you need to use various tools and methods that can measure different aspects of your circuits, such as voltage, current, resistance, power, frequency, waveform, etc. Some of the most common tools and methods for testing circuits are:
Multimeter: This is a device that can measure multiple parameters of a circuit, such as voltage (V), current (A), resistance (Ω), capacitance (F), etc. It has two probes that can be connected to different points in a circuit to measure the parameter between them. It can also have other features such as continuity test (beep sound when there is a connection), diode test (voltage drop across a diode), etc.
Oscilloscope: This is a device that can display the waveform (shape) of an electrical signal over time on a screen. It has one or more channels that can be connected to different points in a circuit to measure the signal between them. It can show the amplitude, frequency, phase and shape of the signal. It can also have other features such as triggering, cursors, measurements, math functions, etc.
Logic analyzer: This is a device that can capture and display the logic states (high or low) of multiple digital signals in a circuit. It has many probes that can be connected to different points in a circuit to measure the signals between them. It can show the timing and sequence of the signals, as well as decode them into meaningful data.
Function generator: This is a device that can generate different types of electrical signals, such as sine waves, square waves, triangular waves, pulses, etc. It has one or more outputs that can be connected to different points in a circuit to provide the signals. It can vary the amplitude, frequency, phase and shape of the signals. It can also have other features such as modulation, sweep, burst, etc.
Power supply: This is a device that can provide a constant or variable voltage or current to a circuit. It has one or more outputs that can be connected to different points in a circuit to supply the power. It can adjust the voltage and current levels, as well as limit them to prevent damage to the circuit.
How to measure voltage, current, resistance and power in a circuit?
To measure voltage, current, resistance and power in a circuit, you need to use a multimeter and follow these steps:
Set your multimeter: Depending on what parameter you want to measure, set your multimeter to the appropriate mode and range. For example, if you want to measure voltage, set it to DC or AC voltage mode and select a range that covers the expected value.
Connect your probes: Depending on what parameter you want to measure, connect your probes to the appropriate points in the circuit. For example, if you want to measure voltage, connect your probes across (in parallel with) the component or node that you want to measure.
Read your multimeter: Depending on what parameter you want to measure, read the value displayed on your multimeter. For example, if you want to measure voltage, read the voltage value in volts (V).
The following table summarizes how to measure each parameter with a multimeter:
Parameter Mode Range Connection Unit ------------------------------------------ Voltage DC or AC voltage Suitable for expected value Across (in parallel with) component or node Volts (V) Current DC or AC current Suitable for expected value In series with component or branch Amperes (A) Resistance Resistance Suitable for expected value Across (in parallel with) component or node Ohms (Ω) Power Power Suitable for expected value Across (in parallel with) component or node Watts (W) How to troubleshoot and fix common circuit problems?
To troubleshoot and fix common circuit problems, you need to use various tools and methods that can help you identify and correct the source of the problem. Some of the most common tools and methods for troubleshooting circuits are:
Visual inspection: This involves looking at your circuit board and components for any signs of damage or defect, such as burns, cracks, loose connections, broken wires, etc. You can also use a magnifying glass or a microscope to see more details.
Continuity test: This involves checking if there is a complete path for current to flow between two points in a circuit using a multimeter or a continuity tester. You can use this method to verify if there are any shorts or opens in your circuit.
Voltage test: This involves measuring the voltage at different points in a circuit using a multimeter or an oscilloscope. You can use this method to compare the actual voltage values with the expected ones and see if there are any discrepancies.
Current test: This involves measuring the current at different points in a circuit using a multimeter or an oscilloscope. You can use this method to compare the actual current values with the expected ones and see if there are any deviations.
Signal test: This involves measuring the waveform of the signal at different points in a circuit using an oscilloscope or a logic analyzer. You can use this method to analyze the shape, frequency, phase and data of the signal and see if there are any distortions or errors.
Component test: This involves testing the functionality and performance of individual components in a circuit using a multimeter, an oscilloscope, a function generator, a power supply or other specialized tools. You can use this method to check if the components are working properly and within their specifications.
To fix common circuit problems, you need to use various tools and methods that can help you repair or replace the faulty parts of your circuit. Some of the most common tools and methods for fixing circuits are:
Soldering iron and solder: These are used to join or detach components and wires on your circuit board. You can use them to fix loose or broken connections, or to replace damaged or defective components.
Desoldering pump and wick: These are used to remove excess or unwanted solder from your circuit board. You can use them to clean up your solder joints, or to remove components or wires that you want to replace.
Cutting pliers and wire strippers: These are used to cut or strip wires on your circuit board. You can use them to adjust the length or expose the ends of your wires, or to remove wires that you want to replace.
Tweezers and screwdrivers: These are used to handle or manipulate small or delicate components and parts on your circuit board. You can use them to insert or remove components or parts that you want to replace.
Hot glue gun and tape: These are used to secure or insulate components and wires on your circuit board. You can use them to prevent short circuits, vibrations, moisture, dust, etc.
Electricity Principles
To understand how electronic circuits work, you need to know the basic principles of electricity that govern their behavior. Electricity is the phenomenon of electric charge moving through a medium, such as a wire or a component. Electric charge is a property of matter that causes it to attract or repel other charged matter. There are two types of electric charge: positive (+) and negative (-). Opposite charges attract each other, while like charges repel each other.
The movement of electric charge is called electric current. The amount of electric charge that passes through a point in a unit of time is called current intensity. The unit of current intensity is ampere (A). The direction of electric current is defined as the direction of positive charge flow, even though in most cases it is actually negative charge (electrons) that moves.
The force that causes electric charge to move is called electric potential difference or voltage. The amount of work done by moving a unit of electric charge from one point to another is called potential difference or voltage between those points. The unit of potential difference or voltage is volt (V). The higher the potential difference or voltage between two points, the more current will flow between them.
The opposition that a material offers to the flow of electric current is called resistance. The ratio between potential difference or voltage and current intensity is called resistance. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). The higher the resistance of a material, the less current will flow through it.
The rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms of energy (such as heat, light, sound, etc.) by an electric device is called power. The product of potential difference or voltage and current intensity is called power. The unit of power is watt (W). The higher the power of an electric device, the more energy it consumes or produces.
How to apply Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws and Thevenin's theorem to analyze circuits?
To analyze circuits, you need to use various laws and theorems that can help you simplify and solve complex circuits. Some of the most important laws and theorems for circuit analysis are:
Ohm's law: This law states that the potential difference or voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current intensity through it. The constant of proportionality is the resistance. Mathematically, this law can be expressed as: $$V = IR$$ where V is the potential difference or voltage in volts (V), I is the current intensity in amperes (A), and R is the resistance in ohms (Ω). You can use this law to find any one of these variables if you know the other two. You can also rearrange this law to find any one of these variables if you know the other two. For example, to find the resistance, you can use: $$R = \fracVI$$
Kirchhoff's current law: This law states that the sum of all currents flowing into a node equals the sum of currents flowing out of the node. Mathematically, this law can be expressed as: $$\sum_k=1^n I_k = 0$$ where n is the number of branches connected to the node, and I_k is the current in the k-th branch. The current is positive if it flows into the node, and negative if it flows out of the node. You can use this law to find any unknown current in a node if you know the other currents.
Kirchhoff's voltage law: This law states that the sum of all voltages around a closed loop is zero. Mathematically, this law can be expressed as: $$\sum_k=1^n V_k = 0$$ where n is the number of components in the loop, and V_k is the voltage across the k-th component. The voltage is positive if it drops in the direction of the loop, and negative if it rises in the direction of the loop. You can use this law to find any unknown voltage in a loop if you know the other voltages.
Thevenin's theorem: This theorem states that any linear circuit with two terminals can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source V_th in series with a single resistor R_th. The voltage V_th is equal to the open-circuit voltage between the two terminals, and the resistance R_th is equal to the equivalent resistance between the two terminals when all independent sources are turned off. You can use this theorem to simplify complex circuits and analyze their behavior when connected to other circuits.
Conclusion
In this article, you have learned everything you need to know about electronic circuits. You have discovered the main types of electronic circuits and how they differ. You have understood the basic components of electronic circuits and what they do. You have learned how to make your own circuit boards and test them. You have also learned the fundamental principles of electricity that govern how circuits work.
With this knowledge and skills, you are ready to create your own electronic projects or enhance your existing ones. You can use electronic circuits to design and build various devices and systems, such as sensors, controllers, amplifiers, computers, robots, etc. You can also use electronic circuits to explore and understand various phenomena and concepts in science, engineering and technology.
If you want to learn more about electronic circuits, here are some practical tips and resources that you can use:
Practice: The best way to learn electronic circuits is by doing. Try to apply what you have learned in this article to different circuits and problems. Experiment with different components and configurations. Observe and analyze their behavior and performance.
Read: There are many books and websites that can teach you more about electronic circuits. Some of them are: - Practical Electronics for Inventors by Paul Scherz and Simon Monk - The Art of Electronics by Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill - Make: Electronics by Charles Platt - All About Circuits (https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/) - Electronics Tutorials (https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/)
Watch: There are many videos and courses that can show you how to learn electronic circuits. Some of them are: - Khan Academy: Electrical Engineering (https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering) - Coursera: Introduction to Electronics (https://www.cour